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Aliphatic hydrocarbons are one of the most important groups of compounds in organic chemistry. Despite being composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms, they form numerous compounds with diverse structures. We can distinguish saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons – alkanes – in which all the bonds are single, and unsaturated hydrocarbons containing multiple (double or triple) bonds […]
The rate of chemical reactions depends on a number of factors, including the temperature or the concentration of the reactants. As it turns out, a small addition of a foreign substance can affect the kinetics of the reaction and thus speed it up considerably. This issue is the subject of catalysis. It is now of […]
Every day, chemical reactions take place all around us. In the course of a reaction, substrates are transformed and different products are formed, often having completely different properties. Chemical reactions can be classified according to various criteria, including the physical state of the substrates and products or the energy effect. However, they are most often […]
A homogeneous mixture of at least two substances is considered a solution. Although we think of a solution mainly as a liquid, gaseous and solid mixtures are also solutions. Nevertheless, a very large group of chemical reactions, both on a laboratory and industrial scale, occurs in an aqueous environment. There are three types of liquid […]
Mineral raw materials are used in virtually every sector of the economy. The deposits of individual mineral resources belong to natural resources of a country and have a fundamental impact on the economic development of the country and, consequently, on the improvement of its citizens’ standard of living. The most important mineral resources include crude […]
This is a group of inorganic compounds formed by the combination of various elements with oxygen. Their general formula is XnOm, where “X” is any element, “O” is oxygen, always in the second oxidation state, and the letters “n,m” in the lower index are coefficients. Examples of oxides: water H2O, potassium oxide K2O, aluminium oxide […]
Proteins are large biomolecules which are the basic structural components of all living organisms. They are macromolecular compounds containing α-amino acid residues and amide bonds, otherwise known as peptide bonds. The molecular weight of proteins exceeds 10,000 daltons (Da). The peptides of lower molecular weights constitute a separate group known as oligopeptides. Common proteins are […]
Polymerization is a reaction leading to the connection of some molecules of organic compounds into longer chains or networks. The process leads to the formation of macromolecules of molecular weight above 10,000 u. Molecules prone to polymerization are called monomers. The products of these transformations are known as polymers.
Isomerism is an important topic in organic chemistry. Isomers are chemical compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. The number of possible isomers is so great that it requires noting structural or semi-structural formulas of organic compounds. The structure of individual isomers affects their properties, e.g. boiling point or solubility.
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